Collective Violence in the Neolithic of Central Europe. The Analysis of Human Skeletal Remains from Complex Burial Features.
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Abstract
This thesis examines part of the evidence for collective lethal violence in human skeletal remains of the Neolithic in Central Europe. Mostly, but not exclusively, built upon the mass violence sites of Eulau, Halberstadt and Schöneck-Kilianstädten various aspects of collective violence are examined.
To be able to correctly identify the osteological evidence for lethal violence in prehistoric skeletal remains the point in time when bone trauma occurred has to be determined as precisely as possible as the correct identification of injuries is the cornerstone of the interpretation of violence-related mass fatality sites. Neglect of taphonomical effects may result in flawed interpretations. Also highly relevant for the reconstruction of prehistoric violence is the level on which theories may be grounded. Sample size determines how far-reaching conclusions may be and to what extent they may be generalised.
The first set of burials examined in detail, the Corded Ware multiple graves of Eulau, Germany, reveal a massacre of part of a settled community. Men, women, and children were killed by cranial blunt force and arrow injuries. An arrowhead embedded in a vertebra is clear evidence of directed lethal violence. Perimortem defense injuries have been identified as well. The demographic pattern indicates a lethal raid on a settlement and the careful arrangement of the bodies proves that survivors existed who had detailed knowledge about the kinship ties between the victims.
The second set of skeletal remains examined was found in the late LBK mass grave of Schöneck-Kilianstädten, Germany which fits well into the context of later LBK massacres known from Talheim, Germany and Asparn/Schletz, Austria. In addition to a high number of cranial injuries numerous perimortem fractures of the major extremity bones were identified, especially in the tibia. In contrast to Eulau, the bodies at Kilianstädten were deposited in a chaotic mass grave devoid of any recognizable burial ritual. The intentional violence is further underscored by the presence of probable arrow injuries. The lack of younger women in the mass grave also fits well with the results obtained at the other LBK massacre sites and might be explained by targeted capture.
The third set of skeletal remains examined in detail has been excavated from the block-lifted late LBK mass grave of Halberstadt, Germany. It contained the largely articulated remains of an almost exclusively young adult male sample. All crania showed perimortem blunt force injuries which were much more uniform in their distribution than at the other LBK mass violence sites. This indicates a more controlled application of lethal trauma. The demographic structure of the victims at Halberstadt further differentiates this feature from the other mass graves as subadults are missing. Isotope analyses revealed that the individuals from the mass grave were not part of the local population as evidenced by a comparison with regular graves found in the nearby settlement. It is proposed that at Halberstadt a group of young non-local adults was systematically executed, likely by the local population. It is possible that the mass grave represents the aftermath of a failed attack and thereby a counter-point to the massacre sites.
Focussing on the LBK, the mass graves may indeed be termed deviant burials and so far seem to be restricted to settlement contexts where they are discovered accidentally. The culturally expressed individuality of the dead, obvious from most singular burials, is suppressed by inclusion in a chaotic mass deposit. So far, collective violence seems to be the leading cause for both mass fatalities and mass graves and several patterns can now be recognised. The scarcity of younger women among the killed victims is one; another is the application of blunt force to the cranium. Wound distribution and demographic structure may hold further clues to the biocultural context in which the mass violence occurred.
Helpful in identifying massacres in the archaeological record of the Neolithic may be the triad of ca. 50 % or more of subadults among the victims, perimortem injury in ca. 50 % or more of individuals, and the evidence for arrow injuries. These traits are highly indicative of a lethal attack on a settled community. In the aftermath of collective violence, two different variants of actively treating the dead can been identified: 1) A disorganized mass grave is utilized, likely as a means to dispose of the dead with the least possible effort. 2) Carefully arranged multiple burials are used, generally following regular burial customs but possibly modifying them to accommodate the higher numbers of deceased. Neglect of the regular burial rites may furthermore be indicative of deposition by “others”. The careful examination of human skeletal remains shows that, at times, collective violence was a prominent and impactful aspect of life and death in the Neolithic of Central Europe.