It’s about time: empirical and theoretical investigations of temporal dynamics in stressor–strain relationships
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Abstract
In recent decades, the number of longitudinal and diary studies in the occupational literature has grown substantially, providing deeper insights into how stressors and strain are related over time and addressing questions about their temporal changes. This body of research recognizes that exposure to stressors and the experience of strain can be both chronic and stable, as well as subject to daily, weekly, or yearly fluctuations. Consequently, naturally occurring temporal ups and downs in stressors and strain, along with their reciprocal relationships, are increasingly considered in occupational stress research. Yet, despite these advances, the role of time remains underrepresented in theories that seek to describe and explain stressors, strain, and their interplay.
By explicitly acknowledging time in both empirical research and theoretical frameworks, we can deepen our understanding of how stressor–strain processes unfold and lay the groundwork for time-sensitive theorizing in occupational stress research. Building on this premise, the present dissertation investigates the empirical and theoretical understanding of the temporal dynamics in stressor–strain relationships and promotes the integration of time into occupational stress research and theory development. Specifically, it pursues three research objectives. First, it evaluates to which extent existing occupational stress theories account for time-related effects in stressor–strain research. Second, it examines and extends two established stressor–strain relationships from a time-sensitive empirical and theoretical perspective, focusing on (1) identifying trajectories of time pressure and their well-being relevance, informed by the effort–recovery model and conservation of resources theory, and (2) investigating reciprocal adaptive change processes between time pressure and emotional exhaustion, drawing on propositions from adaptation and conservation of resources theory. Third, it systematically reviews and synthesizes how time has been theoretically and empirically integrated into existing stressor–strain research.
To achieve these aims, two empirical studies and one systematic literature review were conducted. The first study applied an exploratory person-centered approach to examine which latent classes of time pressure trajectories occur for employees across one workweek as well as their relationship with well-being being at the end of the working week and start of the next week. Using data from 254 employees in a daily diary study across five consecutive workdays, findings revealed four qualitatively distinct trajectories that exhibited class-specific differences in Friday evening and Monday morning positive valence, calmness, and energetic arousal as well as Friday night sleep quality.
The second study explored whether employees adapt to emotional exhaustion and time pressure and how changes in levels of emotional exhaustion and time pressure relate over time, considering their reciprocal relationship. Findings of latent change score analyses on weekly diary data across eight workweeks demonstrated that employees (N = 252) adapted to both emotional exhaustion and time pressure. Further, this adaptive change was affected by the level of time pressure of the previous week, resulting in a reduced adaptation in emotional exhaustion, and vice versa, providing important information on the simultaneously occurring processes of adaptation and resource loss.
The systematic literature review focused on a synthesis of how time is theoretically and empirically integrated into stressor–strain studies (158 studies in 147 articles) published in four peer-reviewed journals between 2012 and 2021. Five time-related categories were identified that demonstrate how current literature applies time in theoretical propositions and methodology. Here, most research tends to address time-related questions from a methodological perspective rather than a theoretical one. The review identifies seven priorities for what time-sensitive theorizing needs in the future and addresses enduring challenges in capturing the temporal dynamics of stressor-strain relationships.
Together, the studies and review provide new empirical evidence and theoretical guidance on the temporal dynamics of occupational stress. They demonstrate that time is not merely a methodological consideration, but a fundamental dimension in explaining how stressors and strain develop, interact, and change. By embedding temporal thinking into occupational stress research and theory, this work advances a more nuanced and accurate understanding of stressor–strain processes and lays the foundation for future time-sensitive theorizing in the field.